Re-examining Early Ming Dynasty Folk Kiln Blue-and-White Porcelain

Academic Controversy

There is still ongoing debate among Chinese scholars regarding folk kiln blue-and-white porcelain from the early Ming Dynasty, specifically from the Hongwu (1368–1398) to the Xuande (1426–1435) periods. Scholars from Nanjing and Jingdezhen hold divergent views:

In 1964, Wang Zhimin（王志敏） from the Nanjing Museum analyzed tens of thousands of porcelain shards unearthed from the Yudai River site of the Ming Palace in Nanjing. He was the first to propose stylistic characteristics of Hongwu and Xuande folk kiln blue-and-white porcelain. His conclusions were later supported by Geng Baochang （耿宝昌）from the Palace Museum in Ming and Qing Porcelain Identification, confirming the existence of Hongwu and Xuande folk kiln blue-and-white porcelain.

However, scholars from Jingdezhen emphasize archaeological evidence from kiln sites and tombs. To date, no dated tombs before the Zhengtong reign (1436–1449) have yielded folk kiln blue-and-white porcelain. Professor Ouyang Shibin （欧阳世斌） from Jingdezhen Ceramic University has pointed out that earlier tombs from the Xuande period and before primarily contained plain white-glazed porcelain.

---

Insights from Archaeological Excavations in Jingdezhen Kilns

Luomaqiao Kiln Site (洛马乔窑址)

The 2012 excavation of the Luomaqiao Kiln Site revealed that its production spanned from the Five Dynasties period (907–960) to the late Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). The Hongwu/Xuande strata contained 2,966 white-glazed bowls and plates (97.8%), with occasional finds of overglaze red and green decorations, underglaze red, and architectural components.

By contrast, the strata from the "Blank Period" (Zhengtong, Jingtai, and Tianshun reigns; 1436–1464) yielded 8,498 specimens, including 6,031 blue-and-white pieces (71%) and 2,067 white-glazed pieces (24.3%). This suggests that blue-and-white porcelain production increased significantly after the Xuande period.

White-glazed shard from Luomaqiao Kiln	Underglaze red shard from Luomaqiao Kiln

 

Liyang Kiln （丽阳窑址）

In 2005, the Liyang Kiln, located 21 km southwest of Jingdezhen, was discovered. Many blue-and-white porcelain pieces found there have been attributed to the "Blank Period," but some may date to the late Xuande reign. The gourd-shaped kilns at this site evolved from the Hongwu/Yongle imperial kilns and show continuity with mid-Ming Hutian gourd kilns.

Blue-and-white porcelain shards from Liyang Kiln

 

---

Foot Construction and Stylistic Continuity

Bowls from Liyang Kiln are characterized by thick foot rings with outward-slanting walls and concave, nipple-like protrusions at the center of the base. This continues the Yuan Dynasty tradition of exposed biscuit foot rims.

 

Geng Baochang noted that a white-glazed bowl from a Yongle fifth-year (1407) tomb shares these characteristics. However, bowls excavated from Luomaqiao Kiln have thinner foot walls and are fully glazed on the exterior base.

Additionally, archaeologist Li Hua （李桦）identified bowls from Guilin with simple scrolling floral decorations, "Fu" (福) and "Shou" (寿) characters, cloud motifs, and even figure paintings, which he dated to the Hongwu period. Majoirty shared the Yongle foot treatment. This raises the question: could some Liyang Kiln blue-and-white porcelain date back to Yongle or even Hongwu?

A blue-and-white bowl fragment bearing an interior inscription "Ming Xuande Year" was found at an ancient residence site in Beijing. It features simple scrolling floral motifs and a rough, unglazed base with a nipple-like protrusion, consistent with Xuande-era craftsmanship. Given that the span from late Hongwu to Xuande is only about 40 years, such findings highlight the continuity of ceramic craftsmanship during this transitional period.

Bowl with Ming Xuande Year mark (From Beijing Collector  Qu Yong Jian in his book “北京出土瓷片断代与鉴赏”

 

---

Lost Archaeological Evidence: Yaoli Lishutan Kiln

In the 1980s, scholars Ouyang Shibin and Huang Yunpeng investigated the Lishutan Kiln Site in Yaoli. The stratigraphy was clear:

• Lower layer (Yuan Dynasty): Qingbai ware with rough biscuit rims.
• Middle layer (Early Hongwu): White-glazed and qingbai-glazed plates with angled walls, large-mouth bowls.
• Upper layer (Late Hongwu to Xuande): Blue-and-white bowls decorated with cloud motifs, scrolling floral designs, butterflies, and cursive "Fu" characters. These had unglazed foot rims.

Unfortunately, the site was later destroyed due to construction. Notably, the porcelain quality at Yaoli was generally lower than at other sites.

 

Blue and white bowl with running script shou on interior.  The short footring oxidised to an orangy colour tone is rather similar to those white ware found in Luo Maoqiao Hongwu/Xuande stratigraphic layer.

This example with unglaze inner ring is similar to those from Yaoli Lishutan kiln site

 

---

Production Trends and Cobalt Supply

Large-scale folk kiln blue-and-white production during the Hongwu reign seems unlikely due to strict cultural controls. In 1371, an imperial edict banned depictions of emperors, sages, dragons, and phoenixes on porcelain.

Professor Ouyang Shibin’s analysis suggests that even low-quality Yuan Dynasty blue-and-white porcelain used imported cobalt. However, the Hongwu administration implemented a maritime ban, making cobalt scarce. Available cobalt was prioritized for official kilns, and court demand was primarily met with copper-red and iron-red wares.

Yuan Dynasty blue-and-white porcelain was mainly for export, as domestic tastes did not favor it (as noted in Cao Zhao’s Ge Gu Yao Lun). Combined with the maritime ban and weak domestic demand, folk kilns had little motivation to produce blue-and-white ware. It was only during the Yongle period, when Zheng He’s voyages reopened cobalt trade, that blue-and-white porcelain flourished in imperial kilns. Folk kilns may have experimented with small-scale production at this time, but everyday ceramics remained predominantly white-glazed, as evidenced by Hongwu and Xuande tombs.

---

Reassessing Decorative Motifs

The motifs attributed to Hongwu folk kiln blue-and-white porcelain—including simple branched flowers, scrolling floral patterns (sometimes with Tibetan characters or Buddhist symbols), cloud-cloaked scholars, ribboned balls, and "Fu Shou" characters—are actually heavily influenced by Yongle and Xuande imperial kilns. Folk kiln artisans often simplified official designs with more expressive brushwork.

For example, a blue-and-white bowl depicting peaches, dated to Yongle by Professor Zhang Pusheng (a disciple of Wang Zhimin), features thick clay and a nipple-like foot, both characteristic of the period.

 

---

Unresolved Questions on Cobalt Sources

The timeline for when Jingdezhen folk kilns began using domestic cobalt remains uncertain. Recent analysis confirms that some Xuande imperial wares already contained local cobalt, but whether official kilns or folk kilns adopted it first is unclear.

However, by the Xuande period, local cobalt sources were sufficient to support folk kiln blue-and-white production. Yunnan blue-and-white porcelain, which used Yunnan cobalt, may have begun in the Hongwu or Yongle period, suggesting an early domestic cobalt supply.

---

Conclusion

Considering political restrictions, cobalt availability, consumer preferences, and ceramic technology evolution, this study suggests that folk kiln blue-and-white porcelain likely began emerging in the late Yongle period (c. 1420s). Influenced by imperial kilns, it gradually developed and became widespread during the "Blank Period" (1436–1464).