In 2003, local fishermen discovered Chinese ceramics in their fishing nets in the Java Sea, recovered from a shipwreck located approximately 54 meters deep and 100 kilometers off the coast of Cirebon, West Java. A private company salvaged the wreck in 2004, recovering around 250,000 artifacts:

The ship, identified as Indonesian-made, was likely engaged in intra-regional trade. Scholars believe it loaded its cargo at a Srivijaya-controlled port before setting sail for Central or East Java. The vessel’s substantial cargo volume suggests a thriving consumer market in Java. Given the political dynamics of the era, the ship was probably bound for East Java. Between the 8th and 10th centuries, the Mataram Kingdom, a Hindu-Buddhist state in Central Java, rivaled the Srivijaya Empire, the dominant maritime power based in Palembang. While Mataram’s agrarian economy did not directly challenge Srivijaya’s control over trade, by the early 10th century, Java’s economic and demographic center had shifted eastward to the Brantas Delta (near modern-day Surabaya). This region developed a mixed economy, integrating agriculture with maritime commerce. Inscriptions from the 10th–13th centuries attest to bustling trade networks at East Javanese ports such as Tuban and Gresik in the Brantas Delta, alongside Jepara on Central Java’s northern coast.

Location of Cirebon Wreck

Key evidence suggests the wreck dates to the late 10th century:

• Historical Context: The wreck likely occurred within five years of 968 A.D., during the Five Dynasties–Northern Song transition. Nanhan and Wuyue (producers of Yue ware) were absorbed into the Song Empire by 971 and 978 A.D., respectively.
  

Yue bowl with inccised Wu Chen Xu Ji Shao Mark

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Analysis of the Chinese Ceramics in the Cargo

The recovered ceramics were predominantly Yue greenware, with smaller quantities of whitewares and Guangdong greenware jars and basins.  

Notably absent were Changsha painted ceramics—a prominent commodity in Tang dynasty trade and found in 9th-century shipwrecks such as the Belitung (Indonesia), Chau Tan and Ba Ria  (Vietnam) sites. This absence suggests that by the early 10th century, Changsha wares no longer played a significant role in Chinese maritime trade, aligning with archaeological evidence dating their terminal production to the Five Dynasties Period.  

Yue kilns had solidified their dominance in greenware production by this time, a status maintained into the early Northern Song period. Yue ware catered to both high-end and lower-end overseas markets, demonstrating broad commercial appeal.  

Meanwhile, Xing whiteware from Hebei faced mounting competition from emerging northern kilns producing similar ceramics. By the Five Dynasties Period, its prominence had waned, and its position as the preeminent center for whiteware production was ultimately supplanted by Ding ware.  

Since the Tang Dynasty, Guangdong kilns in the Pearl River Delta was the  main supplier of green glazed storage jars and basins.  It has maintained its position in this category without challenge.

1.  Yue Greenware

Historical Background

The Yue kilns of Zhejiang had a long tradition of greenware production, dating back to the Zhou period (1046–256 BCE). Potters refined celadon during the Eastern Han (25–220 CE), and by the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), Yue ware became highly valued, especially in tea culture. The finest examples were Mise porcelain, praised in 9th-century texts.

Belitung Yue wares exhibited in Singapore Asian Civilisation Museum.

Yue ware peaked during the Five Dynasties and Northern Song (907–1127 CE) but declined afterward. The Wuyue Kingdom (907–978 CE) supported its production, leading to large-scale tribute wares and exports, with many pieces found in Southeast Asia, including the Cirebon shipwreck. Major production centers were around Shanglin Lake and Dongqian Lake, with over 80 kiln sites identified. Mingzhou (modern Ningbo) served as the primary export hub, connecting Yue ceramics to trade networks across Asia and the Indian Ocean.

Map showing distribution of Yue kilns

The Cirebon Cargo: A Treasure of Yue Wares

The Cirebon shipwreck cargo offers a remarkable assemblage of Yue ceramics, highlighting the diversity of vessel forms and decorative motifs characteristic of the transitional Five DynastiesNorthernSong period.  

Vessel Types and Decoration

• Bowls and Dishes
   

Bowls and dishes dominated the cargo, primarily comprising modest-quality wares produced for mass consumption. These utilitarian pieces often retain interior marks from kiln-stacking clay supports (clay lumps or strips) and feature unglazed foot rings, reflecting efficient kiln-packing practices.  

 

 

In contrast, higher-quality bowls and dishes exhibit fully glazed foot rings and lack stacking marks, suggesting they were fired individually in *saggars* (protective ceramic containers). While most retain simple forms, finer examples display lobed rims, fluted walls, and splayed feet—designs influenced by contemporary silverware. The most distinctive decorative element is the carved lotus petal motif in high relief on exterior walls, a hallmark of Five Dynasties and Song ceramics. The finest pieces are further embellished with intricately incised patterns.  

 

• Ewers 

Ewers, another prominent category, varied in size. Most were undecorated, though luxurious versions were adorned with finely incised or carved high-relief motifs, likely intended for elite patrons.  

 

• Pots  

Pots constituted a significant portion of the cargo. While many are plain or fluted, numerous examples feature the iconic carved lotus petal motif. Rare specimens display delicate incised decoration.  

 

A distinct subgroup of pots exhibits a lighter green glaze paired with bold, coarser lotus carvings. Though likely produced at Wenzhou kilns in Zhejiang, these are classified as “Yue-type” wares due to their stylistic affinity with Yue traditions.  

 

• Other Notable Forms

The cargo also included a small number of covered boxes, cups, and rare objects such as a *makara*-shaped oil lamp (a mythical aquatic creature), a multi-tiered food tray, a cup stand, a bird whistle, and a conch.  

 

Yue artisans employed diverse decorative methods, including carving, incising, sgraffito, appliqué, molding, and openwork. Fine incising flourished from the Five Dynasties through the early Northern Song period, featuring motifs such as phoenixes, dragons, parrots, birds, cicadas, florals, and occasional human figures.

 

Mouding method was used to shape the form of phoenix head, counch, makara, deer, bird and etc.

 

The cicada motif is sometimes mistaken for a moth or butterfly due to physical similarities. However, the cicada holds deep auspicious symbolism in Chinese decoration, representing transformation and resurrection. Its life cycle, involving years underground before emerging, reinforces this symbolism. In ancient Chinese rituals, jade cicadas were placed in the mouths of the deceased to signify permanence, purity, and transformation. Cicadas were also depicted in other materials like silver and inkstones, such as those found in the Belitung wreck. Given its cultural and religious significance, the cicada interpretation is the most appropriate.

Inscriptions on Yue wares are relatively common. Lin Shimin (林士民), a leading scholar of Yue ceramics, categorizes inscriptions from Wu Yue-period kiln sites into 11 groups:  

A bowl recovered from the wreck bears both a workshop mark and a cyclical date (*徐记烧戊辰*) incised on its base. The most frequent inscriptions—neatly executed characters such as 大 (*dà*, “large”) or 上 (*shàng*, “upper”)—appear on high-quality vessels. Lin posits these may denote kiln locations, with 上 potentially referencing an “upper” kiln.  

Rarer examples include a bowl inscribed with 天下太平 (*tiānxià tàipíng*, “peace under heaven”) on its interior wall and another with crudely incised 大 characters on its base, both of relatively modest quality.  

Bowl with 天下太平 inscription

Bowl with many 大 character inscription

However, within Chinese academic circles, some scholars have suggested that a substantial portion of the bowls and dishes may have been produced at the Xuanzhou kiln in Anhui. In 1996, archaeologists Zhang Yong (张勇) and Li Guangning (李广宁) from Anhui attended the Annual Ancient Ceramics Society Conference in Jianyang, Fujian. They brought white ceramic shards excavated from the Yangong kiln (晏公窑) in Jingxian, Anhui, sparking renewed interest in the study of Xuanzhou white ware.

Since then, however, research progress has been limited. Few, if any, white wares have been discovered at the kiln sites, leaving insufficient information for meaningful comparisons.

Guangdong greenwares represented by large jars and basins, were also prevalent. These were likely produced in kilns in the Pearl River Delta, continuing a tradition of large storage vessel production dating back to the Tang Dynasty.

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Conclusion

The Cirebon wreck provides an invaluable snapshot of 10th-century maritime trade, illustrating the economic and cultural exchanges between China, Southeast Asia, and the broader Indian Ocean world. The predominance of Yue greenware underscores the dominance of Zhejiang’s kilns in international trade, while the presence of white wares and Guangdong greenware highlights a diversified market. The study of these ceramics, inscriptions, and historical contexts confirms that the ship was likely engaged in trade between Srivijaya-controlled ports and East Java during a dynamic period of shifting political and economic landscapes.

Beyond its material wealth, the wreck reveals the intricate trade networks that connected diverse regions. Further research will continue to refine our understanding of the economic and artistic evolution of Chinese ceramics and their influence on global trade during this pivotal era.

Written by: NK Koh (28 Jan 2017), updated 21 Feb 2025

Reference: 青瓷与越窑 – 林士民