The outer base of this cover box mentioned Jianning Fu

Mandalika Wreck: Migration of Potters and Anxi Kilns

The Mandalika wreck (discovered off Java’s north coast, c. 11th–12th century) yielded a fragmented qingbai cover box with a molded 20-character inscription on its base:

“祖在建宁府 今在x溪县 戴x兴宝 窑工夫吴x”
(Translation: “Ancestors from Jianning Fu; now in X溪 County; Kiln artisan Wu [surname] of Xing Bao Kiln.”)

The partially eroded “X溪” (X Xi) is hypothesized to refer to Anxi County (安溪), a southern Fujian kiln center. This suggests that the potter’s family migrated from Jianning Fu (northern Fujian) to Anxi, highlighting the mobility of artisans during the Song period. Such migrations are corroborated by surviving genealogical records of Fujian potters. The inscription also identifies the kiln as Xing Bao (兴宝窑), providing rare direct evidence of workshop branding for export markets.

Cover box from Mandalika wreck acquired by Mr Walter Kassela

Lead-Glazed Wares: Expanding Kiln Attributions

Ceramics with iron-black slip decoration under lead glaze (green or yellow) appear in the Java Sea and Philippines’ Breaker Shoal wrecks. These wares underwent a dual firing process: high-temperature bisque firing followed by low-temperature lead glaze application (~800°C). While most glazes have degraded, remnants confirm their original appearance.

Past attributions linked such wares to Fujian’s Cizao, Wuyi Shan (武夷山窑), or Nanping Chayang kilns. However, recent analysis of kiln rejects from Fuqing Shikeng kiln (福清窑) reveals nearly identical decorative techniques, suggesting Fuqing as another production source. Examples include:

• Nanhai 1 wreck: Cizao kiln vase with floral motifs on iron-black slip, retaining traces of green lead glaze.
• Java Sea/Breaker Shoal wrecks: Fragments with incised/molded designs and degraded glaze.
• Fuqing Shikeng kiln: Un-glazed rejects matching decorative styles, supporting Fuqing’s role in export production.

Similar pieces found in Sumatra further underscore Fujian’s widespread ceramic trade networks.

Nanhai 1 wreck Cizo kiln vase with floral decoration on iron black slip ground.  Traces of lead green glaze is still discernible.

Examples with incised/moulded decoration but degraded lead glaze from Java Sea Wreck

Examples with degraded lead glaze from the Breaker Shoal wreck

Examples without the lead glaze found in Fujian Fuqing Shikeng kiln

Some examples that were found in Indonesia Sumatra

Trade Ceramics and Maritime Commerce in the 12th Century

By the second half of the 12th century, Fujian trade ceramics dominated Southeast Asian markets. Evidence from shipwrecks such as Huaguang Jiao 1, Jepara, Java Sea, Breaker Shoal, and Nanhai 1 confirms this dominance. These wrecks carried large quantities of Fujian ceramics, which were more affordable than the higher-quality but more expensive Longquan and Jingdezhen wares.

During this period, the Southern Song court actively encouraged maritime trade to rebuild state finances after years of warfare. Emperor Gaozong’s 1137 AD edict emphasized trade over taxation, fueling a boom in ceramic production from Fujian kilns.

The Missing 13th-Century Shipwrecks

While 12th-century shipwrecks are well-documented, evidence from the 13th century remains scarce. The Pawikan Shoal (Investigator Shoal) wreck, discovered in the Philippines in the 1990s, is one of the few known shipwrecks from this period.

Artifacts from the Investigator wreck suggest an early 13th-century date, based on:

• Longquan octagonal dishes – A new decorative form.
• Fujian kiln chrysanthemum-petal green and qingbai bowls/dishes – Distinct from 12th-century styles.
• Cizao brown-glazed kendi with molded dragon decorations – A new stylistic trend.

Longquan kiln octagonal dish from Investigator wreck (Photo credit. Philippines National Museum)
Chrysanthemum shaped bowls from Investigator wreck
Two Fujian kiln qingbai dishes with moulded decoration found in Sumatra Jambi.  Similar dishes also salvaged from Investigator wreck.
Fujian Cizao brown glaze kendi wtih moulded dragon decoration (Photo Credit: Gilbert Fournier)

Despite the scarcity of shipwreck data, 13th-century Longquan celadons, Dehua white wares, and Cizao brown wares are abundant in Southeast Asia. However, shipwreck evidence is crucial for a complete understanding of the cargo mix. Emerging trends suggest the growing dominance of Longquan, likely impacting Fujian green glaze production. The Batang Kumpeh River in Sumatra Jambi, yielding numerous 13th-century Longquan pieces, serves as a valuable reference for the types produced. (See: [Link to article: Late Northern Song/Early Yuan Lo (koh-antique.com)])

While Jingdezhen qingbai was a superior product, it appears in comparatively small numbers compared with Longquan. Its market dominance emerged only in the 14th century with Shufu white glaze and, later, blue and white porcelain. In the 13th century, Dehua white wares seem to have been a popular substitute, a trend noted by Marco Polo during his visit to Quanzhou in the late 13th century. Fujian's Putian kiln also produced white wares similar to Dehua, though generally of lesser quality. Interestingly, this kiln also continued producing significant quantities of green wares, some with Longquan-inspired carved lotus petals, as seen in the Karang Cina wreck (dating to the first quarter of the 14th century), which contained both Putian green wares and Longquan plates.

Cizao appears to have maintained its position as the primary supplier of brown and lead-glazed wares.